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Penguins are a group of aquatic flightless birds from the order Sphenisciformes of the family Spheniscidae.They live almost exclusively in the Southern Hem
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- Later, an interspersed period of slight warming was ended by the Middle Miocene Climate Transition, a sharp drop in global average temperature from 14 to 12 mya, and similar abrupt cooling events followed at 8 mya and 4 mya;
- Despite this, there is no fossil evidence to support the idea of crown radiation from the Antarctic continent in the Paleogene, although DNA study favors such a radiation.
- Notably, the cold Antarctic Circumpolar Current also started as a continuous circumpolar flow only around 30 mya, on the one hand forcing the Antarctic cooling, and on the other facilitating the eastward expansion of Spheniscus to South America and eventually beyond.
- With habitat on the Antarctic coasts declining, by the Priabonian more hospitable conditions for most penguins existed in the Subantarctic regions rather than in Antarctica itself.
- The emergence of the Subantarctic lineage at the end of the Bartonian corresponds with the onset of the slow period of cooling that eventually led to the ice ages some 35 million years later.
- The geographical and temporal pattern of spheniscine evolution corresponds closely to two episodes of global cooling documented in the paleoclimatic record.
- These two genera diverged apparently in the Middle Miocene (Langhian, roughly 15–14 mya), but again, the living species of Eudyptes are the product of a later radiation, stretching from about the late Tortonian (Late Miocene, 8 mya) to the end of the Pliocene.
- They are characterized by hairy yellow ornamental head feathers; their bills are at least partly red.
- The Megadyptes–Eudyptes clade occurs at similar latitudes (though not as far north as the Galápagos penguin), has its highest diversity in the New Zealand region, and represents a westward dispersal.
- While the two genera separated during this time, the present-day diversity is the result of a Pliocene radiation, taking place some 4–2 mya.
- This group probably radiated eastwards with the Antarctic Circumpolar Current out of the ancestral range of modern penguins throughout the Chattian (Late Oligocene), starting approximately 28 mya.
- They all lack carotenoid colouration and the former genus has a conspicuous banded head pattern; they are unique among living penguins by nesting in burrows.
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- The genera Spheniscus and Eudyptula contain species with a mostly Subantarctic distribution centred on South America; some, however, range quite far northwards.
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- As the former genus, Pygoscelis seems to have diverged during the Bartonian, but the range expansion and radiation that led to the present-day diversity probably did not occur until much later; around the Burdigalian stage of the Early Miocene, roughly 20–15 mya.
- In external morphology, these apparently still resemble the common ancestor of the Spheniscinae, as Aptenodytes' autapomorphies are, in most cases, fairly pronounced adaptations related to that genus' extreme habitat conditions.
- their distribution is intermediate, centred on Antarctic coasts but extending somewhat northwards from there.
- Pygoscelis contains species with a fairly simple black-and-white head pattern;
- This genus has a distribution centred on the Antarctic coasts and barely extends to some Subantarctic islands today.
- incubate by placing their eggs on their feet, and when they hatch the chicks are almost naked.
- They have bright yellow-orange neck, breast, and bill patches;
- The genus Aptenodytes appears to be the basalmost divergence among living penguins.
- Also, the earliest spheniscine lineages are those with the most southern distribution.
- as the well-researched deposits of the Antarctic Peninsula and Patagonia have not yielded Paleogene fossils of the subfamily.
- it seems that the Spheniscinae were for quite some time limited to their ancestral area,
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- Presumably diverging from other penguins around 40 mya,
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- it must have been much the same as the general area in which the order evolved: the oceans between the Australia-New Zealand region and the Antarctic.
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- The origin of the Spheniscinae lies probably in the latest Paleogene and, geographically,
- To help resolve the evolution of this order, 19 high-coverage genomes that, together with two previously published genomes, encompass all extant penguin species have been sequenced.
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- Modern penguins constitute two undisputed clades and another two more basal genera with more ambiguous relationships.
- as well as the radiation that gave rise to the penguin biodiversity of our time.
- The early Neogene saw the emergence of yet another morphotype in the same area, the similarly sized but more gracile Palaeospheniscinae,
- A new lineage, the Paraptenodytes, which includes smaller but decidedly stout-legged forms, had already arisen in southernmost South America by that time.
- which certainly competed with them for food, and were ultimately more successful.
- Their decline and disappearance coincided with the spread of the Squalodontoidea and other primitive, fish-eating toothed whales,
- The oldest well-described giant penguin, the 5-foot (1.5 m)-tall Icadyptes salasi, actually occurred as far north as northern Peru about 36 mya.
- – whether they were considered valid, or whether there was a wide size range present in the Palaeeudyptinae as delimited as is usually done these days (i.e., including Anthropornis nordenskjoeldi).
- – whether they were considered valid, or whether there was a wide size range present in the Palaeeudyptinae as delimited as is usually done these days (i.e., including Anthropornis nordenskjoeldi).
- or whether gigantism was evolved independently in a much restricted Palaeeudyptinae and the Anthropornithinae
- It is not even known whether the gigantic palaeeudyptines constitute a monophyletic lineage,
- for example, around 10 known species of penguins ranging in size from medium to huge apparently coexisted some 35 mya during the Priabonian (Late Eocene).
- But size plasticity seems to have been great at this initial stage of penguin radiation: on Seymour Island, Antarctica,